The Distance Area or Depth in a Work of Art Is Known as

Line

A line is defined as a mark that connects the infinite between two points, taking any grade forth the way.

Learning Objectives

Compare and dissimilarity unlike uses of line in fine art

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• Actual lines are lines that are physically nowadays, existing every bit solid connections between i or more points.
• Implied line refers to the path that the viewer 'south middle takes as it follows shapes, colors, and forms along any given path.
• Straight or classic lines provide stability and structure to a composition and can exist vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on a work's surface.
• Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increment the sense of dynamism of a work of art.
• The outline or contour lines create a border or path around the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining information technology. "Cross contour lines" delineate differences in the features of a surface.
• Hatch lines are a series of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a unmarried direction, and are used to add together shading and texture to surfaces, while cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the paradigm surface and tin be oriented in any direction.

Key Terms

• texture:The feel or shape of a surface or substance; the smoothness, roughness, softness, etc. of something.
• cross-hatching:A method of showing shading by means of multiple small lines that intersect.
• line:A path through two or more points.

The line is an essential element of art, defined equally a marker that connects the space between two points, taking whatsoever form along the way. Lines are used nearly often to define shape in two-dimensional works and could exist called the nigh ancient, likewise as the almost universal, forms of mark making.

There are many different types of lines, all characterized by their lengths being greater than their width, as well as by the paths that they take. Depending on how they are used, lines aid to determine the motion, direction, and free energy of a piece of work of art. The quality of a line refers to the character that is presented by a line in order to animate a surface to varying degrees.

Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections between one or more points, while implied lines refer to the path that the viewer's eye takes every bit information technology follows shape, color, and grade within an art work. Unsaid lines give works of art a sense of motion and keep the viewer engaged in a composition. We can see numerous implied lines in Jacques-Louis David'southward Adjuration of the Horatii, connecting the figures and actions of the slice by leading the eye of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784: Many implied lines connect the figures and action of the slice by leading the eye of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Straight or classic lines add stability and structure to a composition and tin can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on the surface of the work. Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art. These types of lines frequently follow an undetermined path of sinuous curves. The outline or contour lines create a edge or path around the border of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. Cross contour lines delineate differences in the features of a surface and can give the illusion of iii dimensions or a sense of course or shading.

Hatch lines are a series of brusque lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single management, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces. Cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the paradigm surface and tin be oriented in any management. Layers of cross-hatching can add rich texture and volume to prototype surfaces.

Light and Value

Value refers to the use of light and dark in fine art.

Learning Objectives

Explain the artistic employ of light and nighttime (also known every bit "value")

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• In painting, value changes are accomplished by adding blackness or white to a color.
• Value in art is also sometimes referred to as " tint " for light hues and "shade" for dark hues.
• Values almost the lighter end of the spectrum are termed "high-keyed" while those on the darker end are called "low-keyed."
• In two-dimensional fine art works, the utilize of value can help to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume .
• Chiaroscuro was a common technique in Baroque painting and refers to articulate tonal contrasts exemplified past very high-keyed whites, placed direct against very low-keyed darks.

Primal Terms

• chiaroscuro:An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in order to create the illusion of book.

The utilize of light and dark in art is called value. Value can be subdivided into tint (light hues) and shade (dark hues). In painting, which uses subtractive color, value changes are achieved by adding black or white to a color. Artists may too utilise shading, which refers to a more subtle manipulation of value. The value scale is used to bear witness the standard variations in tones . Values near the lighter stop of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, while those on the darker end are low-keyed.

Value scale: The value scale represents different degrees of calorie-free used in artwork.

In ii-dimensional artworks, the use of value can aid to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume. It will besides give the unabridged composition a sense of lighting. High dissimilarity refers to the placing of lighter areas straight confronting much darker ones, so their departure is showcased, creating a dramatic effect. Loftier contrast likewise refers to the presence of more blacks than white or greyness. Low-contrast images result from placing mid-range values together and then there is not much visible difference between them, creating a more subtle mood.

In Bizarre painting, the technique of chiaroscuro was used to produce highly dramatic effects in fine art. Chiaroscuro, which ways literally "low-cal-nighttime" in Italian, refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified past very high-keyed whites, placed direct against very low-keyed darks. Candlelit scenes were mutual in Bizarre painting as they effectively produced this dramatic type of effect. Caravaggio used a loftier dissimilarity palette in such works every bit The Denial of St. Peter to create his expressive chiaroscuro scene.

Caravaggio, The Denial of St. Peter, 1610: Caravaggio's The Deprival of St. Peter is an excellent instance of how light tin can be manipulated in artwork.

Colour

In the visual arts, colour theory is a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual impacts of specific colour combinations.

Learning Objectives

Express the most of import elements of color theory and artists' use of color

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Color theory first appeared in the 17th century, when Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors.
• The spectrum of colors contained in white light are blood-red, orange, yellow, dark-green, blue, indigo , and violet.
• Colour theory divides color into the " primary colors " of red, yellowish, and blueish, which cannot be mixed from other pigments, and the "secondary colors" of greenish, orange, and violet, which result from different combinations of the principal colors.
• Main and secondary colors are combined in diverse mixtures to create tertiary colors.
• Complementary colors are establish contrary each other on the colour wheel and represent the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Key Terms

• complementary color:A color which is regarded as the contrary of another on the color wheel (i.e., red and green, yellowish and purple, and orangish and blue).
• value:The relative darkness or lightness of a color in a specific surface area of a painting or other visual art.
• primary color:Whatever of 3 colors which, when added to or subtracted from others in different amounts, tin can generate all other colors.
• tint:A color considered with reference to other very similar colors. Red and bluish are dissimilar colors, but ii shades of ruddy are dissimilar tints.
• gradation:A passing by modest degrees from one tone or shade, as of color, to another.
• hue:A color, or shade of colour.

Color is a fundamental artistic chemical element which refers to the use of hue in art and pattern. It is the well-nigh complex of the elements because of the wide assortment of combinations inherent to information technology. Colour theory first appeared in the 17th century when Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors. The spectrum of colors contained in white lite are, in guild: red, orange, yellow, light-green, bluish, indigo and violet.

Color theory subdivides color into the "chief colors" of red, yellow, and blue, which cannot be mixed from other pigments; and the "secondary colors" of green, orangish and violet, which result from different combinations of the primary colors. Principal and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create "3rd colors." Color theory is centered around the colour wheel, a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other .

Color bike: The color bike is a diagram that shows the human relationship of the various colors to each other.

Color " value " refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a color. In add-on, "tint" and "shade" are important aspects of colour theory and result from lighter and darker variations in value, respectively. "Tone" refers to the gradation or subtle changes of a color on a lighter or darker scale. "Saturation" refers to the intensity of a color.

Additive and Subtractive Color

Additive color is color created past mixing red, greenish, and blue lights. Television screens, for example, use additive color equally they are made up of the primary colors of red, bluish and green (RGB). Subtractive color,  or "process color," works as the contrary of additive color and the primary colors become cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). Common applications of subtractive colour tin can be plant in printing and photography.

Complementary Color

Complementary colors can be found directly opposite each other on the color wheel (royal and yellow, green and red, orange and blue). When placed next to each other, these pairs create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Warm and Cool Colour

The distinction between warm and absurd colors has been important since at least the late 18th century. The dissimilarity, as traced by etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary, seems related to the observed contrast in landscape low-cal, between the "warm" colors associated with daylight or sunset and the "cool" colors associated with a gray or clouded day. Warm colors are the hues from cherry-red through yellow, browns and tans included. Cool colors, on the other paw, are the hues from blue dark-green through bluish violet, with most grays included. Color theory has described perceptual and psychological furnishings to this dissimilarity. Warm colors are said to advance or appear more than active in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede. Used in interior blueprint or mode, warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer , while cool colors calm and relax.

Texture

Texture refers to the tactile quality of the surface of an art object.

Learning Objectives

Recognize the use of texture in fine art

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Visual texture refers to an unsaid sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of various artistic elements such as line , shading, and color.
• Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities we can notice by touching an object.
• Visible brushstrokes and dissimilar amounts of paint volition create a concrete texture that tin can add to the expressiveness of a painting and describe attention to specific areas within it.
• It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures simply still remain smooth to the touch.

Fundamental Terms

• tactile:Tangible; perceptible to the sense of bear upon.

Texture

Texture in art stimulates the senses of sight and touch and refers to the tactile quality of the surface of the fine art. It is based on the perceived texture of the canvas or surface, which includes the application of the paint. In the context of artwork, there are two types of texture: visual and actual. Visual texture refers to an unsaid sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of various artistic elements such as line, shading and color. Actual texture refers to the concrete rendering or the real surface qualities nosotros tin find by touching an object, such every bit paint application or three-dimensional art.

It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures, yet withal remain smooth to the touch. Take for instance Realist or Illusionist works, which rely on the heavy apply of paint and varnish, withal maintain an utterly smooth surface. In Jan Van Eyck's painting "The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin" we tin can notice a great bargain of texture in the clothing and robes especially, while the surface of the work remains very smooth .

Jan van Eyck, The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin, 1435: The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin has a great deal of texture in the wearable and robes, but the bodily surface of the work is very smooth.

Paintings oft utilise actual texture as well, which nosotros can detect in the physical awarding of paint. Visible brushstrokes and unlike amounts of paint will create a texture that adds to the expressiveness of a painting and depict attention to specific areas inside information technology. The creative person Vincent van Gogh is known to have used a nifty deal of actual texture in his paintings, noticeable in the thick application of paint in such paintings as Starry Night.

Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Nighttime, 1889: The Starry Night contains a keen deal of actual texture through the thick application of pigment.

Shape and Book

Shape refers to an area in a 2-dimensional space that is defined by edges; volume is three-dimensional, exhibiting height, width, and depth.

Learning Objectives

Define shape and volume and identify ways they are represented in art

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• "Positive space " refers to the space of the defined shape or figure.
• "Negative space" refers to the space that exists around and between one or more than shapes.
• A " aeroplane " in art refers to any surface surface area within space.
• " Form " is a concept that is related to shape and can be created past combining two or more shapes, resulting in a three-dimensional shape.
• Art makes use of both actual and implied volume .
• Shape, volume, and space, whether actual or implied, are the basis of the perception of reality.

Key Terms

• form:The shape or visible construction of an artistic expression.
• book:A unit of measurement of three-dimensional mensurate of space that comprises a length, a width, and a height.
• airplane:A flat surface extending infinitely in all directions (e.one thousand., horizontal or vertical airplane).

Shape refers to an area in 2-dimensional infinite that is defined past edges. Shapes are, past definition, always flat in nature and tin exist geometric (e.yard., a circle, square, or pyramid) or organic (eastward.m., a foliage or a chair). Shapes can exist created by placing ii different textures , or shape-groups, next to each other, thereby creating an enclosed area, such equally a painting of an object floating in water.

"Positive infinite" refers to the space of the defined shape, or effigy. Typically, the positive space is the subject of an artwork. "Negative space" refers to the space that exists around and between i or more shapes. Positive and negative space tin become difficult to distinguish from each other in more than abstruse works.

A "airplane" refers to any surface area within space. In two-dimensional art, the " motion picture plane " is the flat surface that the epitome is created upon, such as newspaper, canvas, or forest. Three-dimensional figures may exist depicted on the flat picture aeroplane through the apply of the artistic elements to imply depth and volume, equally seen in the painting Small Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase past Jan Brueghel the Elderberry.

Jan Brueghel the Elderberry, Minor Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase, 1599: Three-dimensional figures may be depicted on the flat picture plane through the use of the artistic elements to imply depth and volume.

"Form" is a concept that is related to shape. Combining 2 or more shapes can create a three-dimensional shape. Class is always considered three-dimensional equally it exhibits volume—or meridian, width, and depth. Art makes use of both bodily and unsaid volume.

While iii-dimensional forms, such as sculpture, accept volume inherently, book tin can also be simulated, or implied, in a two-dimensional piece of work such as a painting. Shape, volume, and space—whether actual or unsaid—are the footing of the perception of reality.

Time and Movement

Movement, a principle of fine art, is a tool artists utilise to organize the artistic elements in a work; it is employed in both static and time-based mediums.

Learning Objectives

Name some techniques and mediums used by artists to convey motility in both static and time-based art forms

Key Takeaways

Central Points

• Techniques such as calibration and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of time in static a visual piece.
• The placement of a repeated chemical element in dissimilar area within an artwork is another way to imply motion and the passing of time.
• Visual experiments in time and movement were beginning produced in the mid-19th century, and the photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well-known for his sequential shots.
• The time-based mediums of film, video, kinetic sculpture , and performance art employ time and movement by their very definitions.

Key Terms

• frames per 2d:The number of times an imaging device produces unique consecutive images (frames) in one second. Abbreviation: FPS.
• static:Fixed in place; having no motion.

Motility, or movement, is considered to be one of the "principles of fine art"; that is, one of the tools artists use to organize the artistic elements in a piece of work of fine art. Motion is employed in both static and in time-based mediums and can show a direct action or the intended path for the viewer 's eye to follow through a piece.

Techniques such as scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motion or the passing of fourth dimension in static visual artwork. For example, on a flat picture plane , an image that is smaller and lighter colored than its surround will announced to exist in the background. Another technique for implying motion and/or fourth dimension is the placement of a repeated chemical element in dissimilar areas inside an artwork.

Visual experiments in time and motion were commencement produced in the mid-19th century. The lensman Eadweard Muybridge is well known for his sequential shots of humans and animals walking, running, and jumping, which he displayed together to illustrate the movement of his subjects. Marcel Duchamp'southward Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 exemplifies an absolute feeling of movement from the upper left to lower right corner of the piece.

Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. ii, 1912: This work represents Duchamp'south conception of motion and time.

While static art forms have the ability to imply or propose fourth dimension and motion, the time-based mediums of picture show, video, kinetic sculpture, and performance art demonstrate time and motion by their very definitions. Film is many static images that are speedily passed through a lens. Video is essentially the same process, but digitally-based and with fewer frames per second . Performance art takes identify in existent fourth dimension and makes use of real people and objects, much like theater. Kinetic art is art that moves, or depends on motility, for its outcome. All of these mediums utilize fourth dimension and motion as a key aspect of their forms of expression.

Chance, Improvisation, and Spontaneity

Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus movement all relied on the elements of chance, improvisation, and spontaneity as tools for making art works.

Learning Objectives

Describe how Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus movement relied on chance, improvisation, and spontaneity

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Dadaists are known for their "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which highlights the creativity of the unconscious listen.
• Surrealist works, much like Dadaist works, often feature an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition , and tapping into the unconscious mind.
• Surrealists are known for having invented " exquisite corpse" cartoon.
• The Fluxus movement was known for its " happenings ," which were operation events or situations that could take place anywhere, in any form , and relied heavily on chance, improvisation, and audience participation.

Primal Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised event, specially i that involves audience participation.
• aggregation:A collection of things which have been gathered together..

Run a risk, improvisation, and spontaneity are elements that can be used to create art, or they can exist the very purpose of the artwork itself. Any medium can employ these elements at any point within the artistic process.

Marcel Duchamp, Urinal, 1917: Marcel Duchamp's Urinal is an example of a "ready-made," which were objects that were purchased or found and then declared fine art.

Dadaism

Dadaism was an art motility pop in Europe in the early 20th century. It was started by artists and poets in Zurich, Switzerland with strong anti-war and left-leaning sentiments. The movement rejected logic and reason and instead prized irrationality, nonsense, and intuition. Marcel Duchamp was a ascendant fellow member of the Dadaist motion, known for exhibiting "set up-mades," which were objects that were purchased or plant and so declared fine art.

Dadaists used what was readily available to create what was termed an "aggregation," using items such as photographs, trash, stickers, coach passes, and notes. The work of the Dadaists involved chance, improvisation, and spontaneity to create fine art. They are known for using "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which often took nonsensical forms, merely immune for the opportunity of potentially surprising juxtapositions and unconscious creativity.

Surrealism

The Surrealist movement, which developed out of Dadaism primarily equally a political move, featured an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition and the tapping of the unconscious heed. Andre Breton, an important member of the movement, wrote the Surrealist manifesto, defining it equally follows:

"Surrealism, northward. Pure psychic automatism , by which ane proposes to limited, either verbally, in writing, or past whatever other manner, the existent functioning of thought. Dictation of idea in the absence of all control exercised by reason, exterior of all aesthetic and moral preoccupation. "

Like Dadaism before information technology, the Surrealist movement stressed the unimportance of reason and planning and instead relied heavily upon risk and surprise every bit a tool to harness the inventiveness of the unconscious mind. Surrealists are known for having invented "exquisite corpse" drawing, an practise where words and images are collaboratively assembled, i after some other. Many Surrealist techniques, including exquisite corpse cartoon, allowed for the playful cosmos of art through assigning value to spontaneous production.

The Fluxus movement

The Fluxus motion of the 1960s was highly influenced by Dadaism. Fluxus was an international network of artists that skillfully blended together many different disciplines, and whose piece of work was characterized by the employ of an extreme do-it-yourself (DIY) aesthetic and heavily intermedia artworks. In addition, Fluxus was known for its "happenings," which were multi-disciplinary performance events or situations that could take place anywhere. Audience participation was essential in a happening, and therefore relied on a great deal of surprise and improvisation. Cardinal elements of happenings were oftentimes planned, but artists left room for improvisation, which eliminated the boundary between the artwork and the viewer , thus making the audience an important part of the art.

Inclusion of All Five Senses

The inclusion of the 5 homo senses in a single work takes identify most oftentimes in installation and performance fine art.

Learning Objectives

Explain how installation and functioning art include the five senses of the viewer

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• In contemporary art, information technology is quite common for work to cater to the senses of sight, bear on, and hearing, while it is somewhat less common to address smell and taste.
• "Gesamtkunstwerk," or "total work of fine art," is a German word that refers to an artwork that attempts to address all 5 human senses.
• Installation art is a genre of iii-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer 's perception of a space .
• Virtual reality is a term that refers to calculator-simulated environments.

Primal Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised event, especially ane that involves audience participation.
• virtual reality:A reality based in the computer.

The inclusion of the 5 homo senses in a single work takes place most often in installation and operation-based art. In add-on, works that strive to include all senses at once generally brand use of some class of interactivity, as the sense of gustation clearly must involve the participation of the viewer. Historically, this attending to all senses was reserved to ritual and ceremony . In contemporary art, it is quite common for work to cater to the senses of sight, impact, and hearing, while somewhat less common for art to address the senses of scent and taste.

The High german word "Gesamtkunstwerk," significant "total work of fine art," refers to a genre of artwork that attempts to address all five human senses. The concept was brought to prominence by the German opera composer Richard Wagner in 1849. Wagner staged an opera that sought to unite the fine art forms, which he felt had become overly disparate. Wagner's operas paid swell attention to every detail in guild to attain a state of total artistic immersion. "Gesamkunstwerk" is now an accepted English term relating to aesthetics , simply has evolved from Wagner'due south definition to mean the inclusion of the five senses in art.

Installation fine art is a genre of 3-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer's perception of a infinite. Beach by Rachel Whiteread exemplifies this type of transformation. The term generally pertains to an interior space, while State Art typically refers to an outdoor space, though there is some overlap between these terms. The Fluxus movement of the 1960s is key to the development of installation and functioning fine art equally mediums.

Rachel Whiteread, Embankment, 2005: Whiteread's installation Embankment is a type of fine art designed to transform the viewer's perception of infinite.

"Virtual reality" is a term that refers to figurer-faux environments. Currently, well-nigh virtual reality environments are visual experiences, but some simulations include additional sensory information. Immersive virtual reality has developed in recent years with the improvement of engineering and is increasingly addressing the five senses inside a virtual realm. Artists have been exploring the possibilities of these false and virtual realities with the expansion of the discipline of cyberarts, though what constitutes cyberart continues to be upward for argue. Environments such as the virtual world of Second Life are mostly accepted, but whether or not video games should be considered art remains undecided.

Compositional Balance

Compositional balance refers to the placement of the artistic elements in relation to each other within a work of art.

Learning Objectives

Categorize the elements of compositional balance in a work of art

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• A harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no ane office of a work overpowers or seems heavier than any other office.
• The iii nigh common types of compositional balance are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial .
• When balanced, a composition appears stable and visually right. Merely as symmetry relates to artful preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" appear, the overall balance of a given limerick contributes to outside judgments of the piece of work.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge to, a common center.
• symmetry:Exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane, center, or centrality. The satisfying organization of a counterbalanced distribution of the elements of a whole.
• asymmetry:Desire of symmetry, or proportion betwixt the parts of a matter, especially want of bilateral symmetry. Lacking a common measure betwixt two objects or quantities; Incommensurability. That which causes something to non be symmetrical.

Compositional remainder refers to the placement of the elements of fine art (colour, form , line , shape, space , texture , and value) in relation to each other. When counterbalanced, a limerick appears more stable and visually pleasing. Just every bit symmetry relates to artful preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" appear, the overall balance of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work.

Creating a harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no single part of a work overpowers or seems heavier than any other part. The three virtually mutual types of compositional remainder are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial.

Compositional residuum: The three common types of balance are symmetric, asymmetric, and radial.

Symmetrical balance is the most stable, in a visual sense, and generally conveys a sense of harmonious or aesthetically pleasing proportionality. When both sides of an artwork on either side of the horizontal or vertical axis of the picture plane are the aforementioned in terms of the sense that is created by the system of the elements of art, the piece of work is said to exhibit this type of rest. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry .

Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man, 1487: Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man is ofttimes used as a representation of symmetry in the human trunk and, past extension, the natural universe.

Asymmetry is divers equally the absenteeism of, or a violation of, the principles of symmetry. Examples of asymmetry appear normally in architecture. Although pre-modernistic architectural styles tended to place an accent on symmetry (except where farthermost site weather or historical developments lead away from this classical ideal), modern and postmodern architects ofttimes used asymmetry as a design element. For instance, while almost bridges utilise a symmetrical form due to intrinsic simplicities of blueprint, analysis, fabrication, and economical use of materials, a number of modern bridges have deliberately departed from this, either in response to site-specific considerations or to create a dramatic pattern statement. .

Oakland Bay Bridge: Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge reflects asymmetrical architectural design.

Radial residue refers to circular elements in compositions. In classical geometry, a radius of a circumvolve or sphere is any line segment from its heart to its perimeter. By extension, the radius of a circle or sphere is the length of whatever such segment, which is half the bore. The radius may be more than half the diameter, which is usually defined every bit the maximum distance between whatever 2 points of the effigy. The inradius of a geometric figure is ordinarily the radius of the largest circle or sphere contained in it. The inner radius of a ring, tube or other hollow object is the radius of its cavity. The name "radial" or "radius" comes from Latin radius, pregnant "ray" but also the spoke of a circular chariot wheel.

Rhythm

Artists use rhythm as a tool to guide the centre of the viewer through works of art.

Learning Objectives

Recognize and interpret the use of rhythm in a work of fine art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Rhythm may be generally divers as a "motion marked past the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions" (Anon. 1971).
• Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation as "timed move through space " (Jirousek 1995), and a mutual language of blueprint unites rhythm with geometry.
• For instance, placing a cherry spiral at the bottom left and pinnacle right, for example, volition cause the heart to move from 1 screw, to the other, and everything in between. Information technology is indicating motion in the piece past the repetition of elements and, therefore, can make artwork seem agile.

Key Terms

• symmetry:Exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, aeroplane, center or axis. The satisfying arrangement of a balanced distribution of the elements of a whole.

The principles of visual fine art are the rules, tools, and guidelines that artists use to organize the elements of in a piece of artwork. When the principles and elements are successfully combined, they aid in creating an aesthetically pleasing or interesting piece of work of art. While there is some variation among them, movement, unity, harmony, diverseness, balance, rhythm, emphasis, contrast , proportion, and blueprint are ordinarily sited as principles of art.

Rhythm (from Greek rhythmos, "any regular recurring motility, symmetry " (Liddell and Scott 1996)) may be generally divers as a "movement marked past the regulated succession of stiff and weak elements, or of opposite or different atmospheric condition" (Anon. 1971). This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in time may be applied to a broad variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to millions of years. In the performing arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human calibration, of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as "timed motility through space" (Jirousek 1995), and a mutual language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.

In a visual composition , pattern and rhythm are generally expressed past showing consistency with colors or lines . For instance, placing a ruby-red spiral at the bottom left and pinnacle right, for instance, will cause the eye to motility from i spiral, to the other, so to the space in between. The repetition of elements creates motion of the viewer 'south eye and can, therefore, brand the artwork feel active. Hilma af Klint's Svanen (The Swan) exemplifies the visual representation of rhythm using color and symmetry.

Hilma af Klint, Svanen (The Swan), 1914: Color and symmetry work together in this painting to guide the middle of the viewer in a particular visual rhythm.

Proportion and Scale

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements inside a composition.

Learning Objectives

Apply the concept of proportion to dissimilar works of art

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or calibration to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork.
• Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not just a building but the fix and setting of the site.
• Among the various ancient creative traditions, the harmonic proportions, human proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry , and small whole-number ratios were all applied every bit role of the practice of architectural design.

Primal Terms

• golden ratio:The irrational number (approximately ane·618), commonly denoted by the Greek letter of the alphabet φ (phi), which is equal to the sum of its own reciprocal and 1, or, equivalently, is such that the ratio of 1 to the number is equal to the ratio of its reciprocal to 1. Some twentieth-century artists and architects have proportioned their works to approximate this—especially in the course of the gilded rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter equals this number—believing this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing.

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a composition . Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to draw the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. In aboriginal Egyptian art, for example, gods and important political figures appear much larger than common people. Beginning with the Renaissance , artists recognized the connectedness between proportion and perspective , and the illusion of three-dimensional infinite . Images of the human trunk in exaggerated proportion were used to depict the reality an artist interpreted.

Depiction of Narmer from the Narmer Palette: Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied by men conveying the standards of diverse local gods. This piece demonstrates the ancient Egyptians' use of proportion, with Narmer appearing larger than the other figures depicted.

Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not just a building but the prepare and setting of the site. The things that make a building and its site "well shaped" include everything from the orientation of the site and the buildings on information technology, to the features of the grounds on which information technology is situated. Low-cal, shade, air current, top , and choice of materials all relate to a standard of architectural proportion.

Compages has often used proportional systems to generate or constrain the forms considered suitable for inclusion in a building. In well-nigh every edifice tradition, there is a system of mathematical relations which governs the relationships between aspects of the pattern. These systems of proportion are often quite unproblematic: whole number ratios or incommensurable ratios (such equally the gilt ratio) were determined using geometrical methods. By and large, the goal of a proportional organisation is to produce a sense of coherence and harmony amidst the elements of a building.

Amidst the various aboriginal artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, human being proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry, and pocket-sized whole-number ratios were all applied as part of the practice of architectural design. For instance, the Greek classical architectural orders are all proportioned rather than dimensioned or measured modules, considering the earliest modules were not based on body parts and their spans (fingers, palms, hands, and feet), but rather on cavalcade diameters and the widths of arcades and fenestrations .

Temple of Portanus: The Greek Temple of Portanus is an example of classical Greek architecture with its tetrastyle portico of iv Ionic columns.

Typically, one set up of column diameter modules used for casework and architectural moldings by the Egyptians and Romans is based on the proportions of the palm and the finger, while another less delicate module—used for door and window trim, tile work, and roofing in Mesopotamia and Hellenic republic—was based on the proportions of the manus and the thumb.

Dating back to the Pythagoreans, at that place was an idea that proportions should be related to standards, and that the more general and formulaic the standards, the better. This concept—that there should exist beauty and elegance evidenced by a skillful composition of well understood elements—underlies mathematics, art, and architecture. The classical standards are a series of paired opposites designed to expand the dimensional constraints of harmony and proportion.

Space

Space in art can exist defined as the expanse that exists betwixt two identifiable points.

Learning Objectives

Define space in art and list means information technology is employed by artists

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• The organization of infinite is referred to as limerick and is an essential component to any work of art.
• The space of an artwork includes the background, foreground, and middle footing , too as the altitude between, effectually, and inside things.
• In that location are two types of infinite: positive space and negative infinite.
• After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective , Western artistic notions about the accurate depiction of space went through a radical shift at the kickoff of the 20th century.
• Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an of import shift in the use of space within Western art, which is still existence felt today.

Key Terms

• infinite:The distance or empty area between things.
• Cubism:An artistic movement in the early 20th century characterized by the depiction of natural forms as geometric structures of planes.

The organization of space in art is referred to as composition, and is an essential component of any work of fine art. Infinite can exist mostly defined equally the area that exists between any 2 identifiable points.

Space is conceived of differently in each medium . The space in a painting, for instance, includes the background, foreground and middle ground, while three-dimensional infinite, like sculpture or installation , volition involve the distance betwixt, around, and within points of the work. Space is further categorized as positive or negative. "Positive space" can be divers as the subject field of an artwork, while "negative infinite" can exist defined every bit the space effectually the subject.

Over the ages, infinite has been conceived of in diverse ways. Artists accept devoted a great deal of time to experimenting with perspectives and degrees of flatness of the pictorial plane .

The perspective system has been a highly employed convention in Western fine art. Visually, it is an illusionist miracle, well suited to realism and the depiction of reality as it appears. After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective, Western artistic conventions nearly the accurate depiction of space went through a radical shift at the beginning of the 20th century. The innovations of Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an important shift in the utilise of space inside Western art, the impact of which is still existence felt.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907: Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is an example of cubist art, which has a tendency to flatten the picture aeroplane, and its use of abstract shapes and irregular forms suggest multiple points of view within a single image.

Ii-Dimensional Space

Two-dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar project of the physical universe in which we live.

Learning Objectives

Discuss 2-dimensional space in art and the physical properties on which it is based

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• In physical terms, dimension refers to the constituent structure of all space and its position in time.
• Drawing is a form of visual art that makes utilise of whatever number of instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium .
• Well-nigh any dimensional form tin can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. In one case these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form.

Key Terms

• dimension:A single aspect of a given matter. A measure of spatial extent in a particular direction, such as tiptop, width or breadth, or depth.
• 2-Dimensional:Existing in two dimensions. Not creating the illusion of depth.
• Planar:Of or pertaining to a plane. Flat, two-dimensional.

Two dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the concrete universe in which we live. The two dimensions are commonly chosen length and width. Both directions lie on the same airplane . In physics, our bi-dimensional infinite is viewed as a planar representation of the space in which we move.

Mathematical depiction of bi-dimensional space: Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate organization.

In art composition , cartoon is a form of visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to marker a ii-dimensional medium (meaning that the object does not have depth). One of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the medium has been a popular and fundamental ways of public expression throughout human being history. Additionally, the relative availability of basic cartoon instruments makes drawing more than universal than most other media.

Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important pace in producing a realistic rendition of a subject. Tools such as a compass can exist used to measure the angles of dissimilar sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of unlike parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can exist used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler tin be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of archaic shapes.

Almost any dimensional form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. In one case these bones shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can exist refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the archaic shapes are removed and replaced by the concluding likeness. A more refined fine art of effigy drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the man proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, articulation location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during motion. This allows the creative person to render more natural poses that exercise not appear artificially stiff. The artist is as well familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the historic period of the subject, particularly when cartoon a portrait.

Cartoon human figures: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec'south Madame Palmyre with Her Domestic dog, 1897.

Linear Perspective and Iii-Dimensional Space

Perspective is an gauge representation on a flat surface of an image as it is seen by the eye.

Learning Objectives

Explain perspective and its bear on on art composition

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are normally considered to have begun effectually the 5th century B.C. in the art of Ancient Hellenic republic.
• The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer .
• In Medieval Europe, the use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily just without a basis in a systematic theory.
• By the Renaissance , nearly every artist in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings, both to portray depth and too equally a new and "of the moment" compositional method.

Key Terms

• curvilinear:Having bends; curved; formed past curved lines.
• horizon line:A horizontal line in perspective drawing, direct opposite the viewer's eye and frequently implied, that represents objects infinitely far away and determines the bending or perspective from which the viewer sees the work.
• vanishing point:The signal in a perspective drawing at which parallel lines receding from an observer seem to converge.
• Perspective:The technique of representing 3-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface.

In art, perspective is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an epitome as it is seen by the eye, calculated by bold a item vanishing point . Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the 5th century BCE in the art of Aboriginal Hellenic republic. Past the after periods of artifact , artists—specially those in less popular traditions—were well aware that distant objects could exist shown smaller than those close at hand for increased illusionism. But whether this convention was actually used in a piece of work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings constitute in the ruins of Pompeii show a remarkable realism and perspective for their time.

The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer. The well-nigh important figures are oft shown every bit the highest in a limerick , as well from hieratic motives, leading to the "vertical perspective" mutual in the art of Ancient Egypt , where a grouping of "nearer" figures are shown below the larger figure(due south).

The art of the Migration Period had no tradition of attempting compositions of large numbers of figures, and Early on Medieval fine art was slow and inconsistent in relearning the convention from classical models, though the procedure tin be seen underway in Carolingian art. European Medieval artists were aware of the general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, and use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, just without a basis in a systematic theory.

By the Renaissance, however, almost every artist in Italia used geometrical perspective in their paintings. Not only was this utilise of perspective a way to portray depth, just it was besides a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to testify a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. For a while, perspective remained the domain of Florence. Gradually, and partly through the motion of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became office of the training of artists across Europe and, later, other parts of the world.

Perspective in Renaissance Painting: Pietro Perugino's usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

A cartoon has i-point perspective when it contains only ane vanishing indicate on the horizon line . This type of perspective is typically used for images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed so that the front is directly facing the viewer. Any objects that are fabricated upwardly of lines either directly parallel with the viewer'due south line of sight or directly perpendicular (the railroad slats) tin can be represented with one-bespeak perspective. These parallel lines converge at the vanishing point.

Two-signal perspective can exist used to describe the aforementioned objects as i-point perspective, but rotated—such as looking at the corner of a house, or looking at two forked roads shrink into the distance. In looking at a house from the corner, for instance, i wall would recede towards one vanishing point and the other wall would recede towards the reverse vanishing point.

Three-point perspective is used for buildings depicted from to a higher place or beneath. In addition to the ii vanishing points from before, 1 for each wall, there is now a 3rd i for how those walls recede into the ground . This third vanishing point would be below the ground.

Four-bespeak perspective is the curvilinear variant of two-point perspective. The resulting elongated frame can be used both horizontally and vertically. Like all other foreshortened variants of perspective, four-betoken perspective starts off with a horizon line, followed by four equally spaced vanishing points to delineate four vertical lines. Because vanishing points exist only when parallel lines are present in the scene, a perspective with no vanishing points ("nix-point") occurs if the viewer is observing a non-rectilinear scene. The most common example of a nonlinear scene is a natural scene (e.m., a mountain range), which frequently does not contain any parallel lines. A perspective without vanishing points tin can still create a sense of depth.

Distortions of Infinite and Foreshortening

Distortion is used to create various representations of space in two-dimensional works of art.

Learning Objectives

Identify how baloney is both employed and avoided in works of art

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• Perspective project distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of 3-dimensional infinite when drawn or "projected" onto a two-dimensional surface. It is incommunicable to accurately depict 3-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional aeroplane .
• Notwithstanding, in that location are several constructs available which allow for seemingly accurate representation. Perspective projection tin can be used to mirror how the eye sees by the apply of one or more vanishing points .
• Although distortion can be irregular or follow many patterns, the nigh commonly encountered distortions in composition , especially in photography, are radially symmetric, or approximately and then, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge into, a common center
• projection:The image that a translucent object casts onto some other object.
• foreshortening:A technique for creating the advent that the object of a drawing is extending into infinite past shortening the lines with which that object is drawn.

A distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of an object, image, sound, or other form of information or representation. Baloney tin can be wanted or unwanted past the artist. Distortion is usually unwanted when it concerns concrete degradation of a work. However, it is more normally referred to in terms of perspective, where it is employed to create realistic representations of space in two-dimensional works of art.

Perspective Projection Distortion

Perspective projection baloney is the inevitable misrepresentation of three-dimensional space when fatigued or "projected" onto a two-dimensional surface. Information technology is impossible to accurately describe iii-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional plane. However, in that location are several constructs available that permit for seemingly accurate representation. The nigh mutual of these is perspective projection. Perspective projection tin be used to mirror how the eye sees by making use of one or more than vanishing points.

Giotto, Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ), 1305–1306: Giotto is one of the nigh notable pre-Renaissance artists to recognize distortion on two-dimensional planes.

Foreshortening

Foreshortening is the visual result or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than it actually is considering it is angled toward the viewer . Although foreshortening is an of import element in art where visual perspective is beingness depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional scenes, such as oblique parallel projection drawings.

The physiological basis of visual foreshortening was undefined until the year grand when the Arabian mathematician and philosopher, Alhazen, in his Perspectiva, get-go explained that light projects conically into the eye. A method for presenting foreshortened geometry systematically onto a plane surface was unknown for another 300 years. The creative person Giotto may have been the outset to recognize that the image beheld by the center is distorted: to the centre, parallel lines appear to intersect (like the distant edges of a path or road), whereas in "undistorted" nature, they do not. In many of Giotto's paintings, perspective is employed to attain various baloney furnishings.

Foreshortening: This painting illustrates Melozzo da Forlì's usage of upward foreshortening in his frescoes at The Basilica della Santa Casa.

Distortion in Photography

In photography, the projection machinery is light reflected from an object. To execute a drawing using perspective project, projectors emanate from all points of an object and intersect at a station point. These projectors intersect with an imaginary plane of projection and an image is created on the plane by the points of intersection. The resulting image on the project aeroplane reproduces the prototype of the object every bit it is beheld from the station point.

Radial distortion can usually be classified equally one of 2 main types: barrel distortion and pincushion distortion. Butt distortion occurs when image magnification decreases with distance from the optical centrality. The apparent event is that of an image which has been mapped effectually a sphere (or butt). Fisheye lenses, which take hemispherical views, utilize this type of baloney every bit a way to map an infinitely broad object plane into a finite image area.

On the other paw, in pincushion distortion, the image magnification increases with the distance from the optical centrality. The visible effect is that lines that do not go through the center of the image are bowed in, towards the eye of the image, like a pincushion. A sure corporeality of pincushion baloney is oft establish with visual optical instruments (i.e., binoculars), where information technology serves to eliminate the globe issue.

Cylindrical perspective is a form of distortion caused by fisheye and panoramic lenses, which reproduce straight horizontal lines higher up and below the lens axis level every bit curved, while reproducing straight horizontal lines on lens centrality level as straight. This is likewise a common feature of broad-angle anamorphic lenses of less than 40mm focal length in cinematography. Essentially it is merely barrel distortion, just just in the horizontal plane. It is an artifact of the squeezing procedure that anamorphic lenses do to fit widescreen images onto standard-width film.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/visual-elements/

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